Last modified on: 8-August-2016.
FRESH FROM THE PAINTING TABLE
Okay, I had originally intended several years ago to use this blog for two purposes: to post articles on ancient history relevant to wargaming and to post images of my wargaming miniatures. Unfortunately due to illness, I haven’t done much of the first and none at all of the latter. So, a couple of months ago, I looked around for a painting service here in Ontario and found the web site of Four Realms of Chaos in Markham. Ontario.
The following is the first commission that Four Realms of Chaos painted for me. It consists of 48 legionaries (Latin: legionarii) divided into three units. The miniatures are from the Wargames Foundry. The first photo shows the miniatures prior to being coated with The Army Painter’s Quickshade, a pigmented varnish.
As you can see, Four Realms of Chaos did a fabulous job. You pay according to the quality of painting that you want. I asked for a good wargaming paint job. Their price was pretty reasonable and I got a very good standard of painting for wargaming miniatures. I am so happy that I have already sent them off a second commission consisting of more legionaries, Numidian light cavalry, and some Gallic allied infantry!
Anyway, I added shields using the wonderful shield transfers from Little Big Men Studios. I also did the wargaming bases. First up are the black shields:
Next are the green shields:
And last are the white shields:
Unfortunately, I am having some trouble with my digital camera. It is flashing an error message that I don’t recognize! %@#$%#
BACKGROUND ON THE ROMAN REPUBLIC IN THE FIRST CENTURY BCE
Gaius Marius is credited with reforming the Roman army during the last decade of the Second Century BCE and the first decade of the First Century BCE. In the decades that followed, Roman armies were often more loyal to their commanders than to the Republic as it was their commanders who paid them and frequently rewarded them with farms in Italy. According to Pliny the Elder, Crassus is said to have commented that no one could consider himself rich if he could not support a legion on his own annual income! In 88 BCE, Sulla was the first Roman general to lead an army against and into the city of Rome. More than a half century of civil wars followed on and off with Octavian (Augustus) emerging as the ultimate victor. This era is a fascinating and remarkably rich source for historical study as well as for gaming.
The above models of legionaries of the First Century BCE are suitable for the armies of many Roman commanders during these turbulent, final years of the Roman Republic including the following. Incidentally, I have given a bit more information about the first two generations due to my own personal interest.
N.B. The abbreviation ‘cos.’ is the ancient Latin abbreviation for consul.
Gaius Marius (cos. 107, 104, 103, 102, 101, 100, 86 BCE) – Marius conquered Jugurtha, the king of Numidia, in 105 BCE putting an end to a long drawn out war (112–105). Marius was victorious against the Teutones at Aquae Sextiae in 102 BCE and was victorious along with Quintus Lutatius Catulus (cos. 102 BCE) against the Cimbri at Vercellae in 101 BCE. The Teutones and Cimbri were Germanic tribes who threatened Italy and Rome’s Gallic provinces. After the command in the First Mithridatic War (88–86 BCE) was stripped from Sulla and assigned to Marius in 88 BCE, Marius was forced to flee Rome for his life by Sulla’s army. He just barely managed to escape to north Africa. Following the departure of Sulla and his army for the East, Marius and the consul Cinna occupied Rome and slaughtered their opponents in 87 BCE. Marius’ former colleague Quintus Lutatius Catulus was forced to commit suicide. Marius died just 17 days after beginning his seventh consulship in 86 BCE at the age of seventy.
Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (cos. 88, 80 BCE) – Sulla served under Marius against Jugurtha (whom Sulla captured) and under Catulus against the Germans. Sulla rose to prominence as a commander during the Social War (91–88 BCE) in which Rome’s Italian allies (Latin: socii) rose in revolt seeking Roman citizenship. In 88 BCE Sulla was stripped of the command against Mithridates the Great of Pontos and was forced to withdraw from Rome to escape from riotous mobs. However, Sulla returned with his army, captured Rome, and forced Marius to flee. Sulla then slaughtered his opponents and awarded himself the command in the First Mithridatic War (88–86 BCE). Sulla sacked Athens and was victorious against the Pontic armies at Khaironeia and Orkhomenos in 86 BCE. He subsequently imposed the Peace of Dardanos upon Mithridates the Great in 86 BCE. Upon returning to Italy, Sulla vanquished the Marians in Italy in 83–82 BCE. Sulla then proscribed his enemies throughout Italy slaughtering them on what appears to have been an unprecedented scale. Sulla became Dictator in 81 BCE. He laid down the dictatorship in 79 BCE and died the following year (78 BCE).
Lucius Cornelus Cinna (cos. 87, 86, 85, 84 BCE) – Following the departure of Sulla for the East, the consul Cinna supported granting full Roman citizenship to all people in Italy whereas his co-consul Gnaeus Octavius (cos. 87 BCE) opposed this policy. After violent street fighting, Cinna was driven out of Rome by Octavius and his pro-Sulla supporters. Octavius then ousted Cinna from the consulship and supported the illegal election of Lucius Cornelius Merula (cos. suff. 87 BCE) to take his place. Along with Marius, Cinna raised an army and advanced against Rome in 87 BCE. Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo (cos. 89 BCE), the father of Pompey the Great, ostensibly came to the aid of Octavius, but died apparently after being struck by lightning! Marius and Cinna then took Rome and Octavius was slain. Merula relinquished the consulhip to Cinna and committed suicide. Cinna later opposed the killings being fomented by Marius. In 85 BCE, the young Gaius Julius Caesar married Cinna’s daughter Cornelia. Cinna was killed by mutineers in Ancona in 84 BCE.
Lucius Licinius Lucullus (cos. 74 BCE) – Lucullus served with distinction under Sulla during the Social War (91–88 BCE), during Sulla’s march on Rome in 88 BCE, and during the First Mithridatic War (88–86 BCE). In Sulla’s will, Lucullus was appointed guardian of Sulla’s young son Faustus Cornelius Sulla. Given command in the Third Mithridatic War (74–66 BCE), Lucullus lifted the siege of Kyzikos by Mithridates the Great in 73 BCE and expelled Mithridates from Pontos in 71 BCE. Mithridates fled to his son-in-law Tigranes the Great, the king of Armenia. With a relatively small army, Lucullus then marched against Tigranes, who famously quipped that if they came as ambassadors they were too many, but if they came as soldiers they were too few! Lucullus, nevertheless, routed Tigranes at Tigranokerta and Artaxata in 69/68 BCE. However, Lucullus was prevented from ultimately conquering Mithridates and Tigranes by his mutinous army and by the Roman publicani (tax farmers), whose rape of the cities of Asia Lucullus had moderated. Lucullus was forced to surrender his command to Pompey the Great in 66 BCE. Back in Rome, Lucullus was an unsuccessful politician and was famous for his luxurious life style. He lapsed into insanity and died in roughly 57/56 BCE.
Quintus Sertorius – A supporter of Cinna against the pro-Sulla forces. Sertorius persuaded Cinna to join him in opposing the killings in Rome fomented by Marius. Upon the return of Sulla from the East in 83 BCE, Sertorius withdrew from Italy and eventually established himself in Spain. For roughly a decade, Sertorius was successful in fighting numerous Roman generals sent against him including Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius (cos. 80 BCE) and Pompey the Great. Sertorius was assassinated by Marcus Perperna in 73/72 BCE.
Marcus Licinius Crassus (cos. 70, 55 BCE) – Crassus was the son of Publius Licinius Crassus (cos. 97 BCE), who committed suicide when Marius and Cinna captured Rome in 87 BCE. Crassus fled first to Spain and then to Africa and subsequently joined Sulla when he returned to Italy in 83 BCE. Crassus was responsible for Sulla’s victory against the Marians at Rome’s Colline Gate in 83/82 BCE. Crassus became fabulously wealthy by profiteering from the proscriptions of Sulla. Crassus vanquished the gladiator Spartacus and his slave army in 71 BCE in Lucania. He was consul in 70 BCE with Pompey as his colleague. Crassus was a member of the First Triumvirate (60–53 BCE) with Pompey and Caesar. Crassus was once again consul with Pompey in 55 BCE and received the province of Syria for 5 years. Having built up his army in Syria during 54 BCE, Crassus crossed the Euphrates River in an invasion of the Parthian Empire. However, Crassus was defeated and killed by the Parthians at Carrhae in 53 BCE. His sons Marcus and Publius both served with distinction under Julius Caesar during the Gallic Wars. Publius died at Carrhae.
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great) (cos. 70, 55, 52 BCE) – Pompey was given the title Magnus (“Great”) as a young man by Sulla for his victories against the Marians in Italy, Sicily, and Africa. Despite his youth and lack of the prerequisite high elected office, Pompey was awarded a triumph for these victories in 81/80 BCE. Pompey was sent to Spain in 77 BCE to fight against Sertorius alongside Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius (cos. 80 BCE). However, the two generals and two armies were unable to put an end to the war until after the assassination of Sertorius in 73/72 BCE. Pompey was consul in 70 BCE with Crassus as his colleague. Pompey was given an extraordinary command against the pirates and swept them from the Mediterranean in 67 BCE. Pompey ousted Mithridates the Great from Pontos in 66 BCE. Pompey accepted the surrender of Tigranes the Great, but left him as king of Armenia, which was henceforth a Roman client kingdom. Pompey campaigned in the Caucasus in 65 BCE against the Iberi and Albani. He ousted the Seleukid dynasty and annexed Syria in 64 BCE. Pompey besieged and captured Jerusalem in 63 BCE. Pompey’s son-in-law Faustus Cornelius Sulla distinguished himself by being the first to mount the Temple’s battlements. Pompey established Judaea as a Roman client state. Pompey was a member of the First Triumvirate (60–53 BCE) with Crassus and Caesar. Pompey obtained his second consulship again with Crassus as his colleague in 55 BCE. The elections for 52 BCE were invalidated due to widespread gang warfare and bribery. As a result, Pompey was declared sole consul in 52 BCE, but in the middle of the year he appointed his father-in-law Metellus Scipio as his colleague. Civil war broke out between Pompey and Caesar in 49 BCE. Pompey unexpectedly evacuated Italy and mobilized an army in the Balkans. Pompey was defeated by Caesar at Pharsalos and was murdered in Egypt in 48 BCE.
Marcus Tullius Cicero (cos. 63 BCE) – A noted orator, litigator, and author. During his consulship, Cicero thwarted the widespread conspiracy of Lucius Sergius Catilina (Catiline), who was slain in battle in January 62 BCE. Cicero sided with Pompey in the civil war, but was pardoned by Julius Caesar. Cicero was proscribed by Antony and murdered in 43 BCE.
Gaius Julius Caesar (cos. 59, 48, 46, 45, 44 BCE) – Caesar’s paternal aunt Julia was the wife of Marius and the mother of his son. Caesar’s older cousin Gaius Marius the Younger (cos. 82 BCE) died fighting against Sulla during his consulship. Caesar was married to Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna. As a result of these family connections, Caesar went into hiding in the countryside in ca. 82–81 BCE to avoid the proscriptions of Sulla, who eventually pardoned Caesar due to his youth and connections. Caesar was a member of the First Triumvirate (60–53 BCE) with Pompey and Crassus. He was the governor of Cisalpine Gaul, Transalpine Gaul, and Illyricum from 58 to 50 BCE. Caesar used his command of these provinces to expand into the territory of the Celtae, Aquitani, and Belgae. Caesar was the first Roman general to bridge the Rhine in 55 and 53 BCE. Caesar also led the first Roman invasions of Britain in 55 and 54 BCE. He was victorious in 52 BCE at Alesia against the Gallic leader Vercingetorix and thereby effectively finalized his conquest of the Celtae, Aquitani, and Belgae. In January 49 BCE, Caesar crossed the Rubicon (the border between his province and Italy) thus beginning a civil war against Pompey. Caesar defeated the Pompeian armies in Spain at Ilerda in 49 BCE. Caesar vanquished Pompey himself at Pharsalos in 48 BCE. Caesar established Kleopatra VII as the Ptolemaic queen of Egypt and supposedly fathered a son with her nicknamed Caesarion. Caesar defeated the Pontic king Pharnakes II of Pontos (the son of Mithridates the Great) at Zela in 47 BCE and sent a report to the Senate simply stating “Veni, vidi, vici (I came, I saw, I conquered)”. Caesar defeated the Pompeians in Africa at Thapsus in 46 BCE and in Spain at Munda in 45 BCE. Caesar was assassinated on the Ides of March in 44 BCE.
Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (cos. 46, 42 BCE) – Lepidus was the son of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (cos. 78 BCE), who had attempted to overthrow Sulla’s constitutional reforms and had marched on Rome in 77 BCE. However, his father had been defeated by Quintus Lutatius Catulus (cos. 78), the son of the consul of 102 BCE. His father had died shortly afterwards in Sardinia and his vanquished supporters—including Marcus Perperna—had then joined the renegade Quintus Sertorius in Spain. Later these anti-Sullan connections of his father would have no doubt commended the younger Lepidus to Julius Caesar. Nearly three decades later, Caesar occupied Rome in 49 BCE and appointed Lepidus as praetor. While Caesar marched against Pompey in the Balkans, Lepidus was governor of Hispania Citerior (Nearer/Hither Spain) from 48 to 47 BCE. Lepidus was Caesar’s colleague as consul in 46 BCE. During Caesar’s dictatorship (46–44 BCE), Lepidus was Caesar’s magister equitum (Master of the Horse, i.e. second in command). After Caesar’s assassination in 44 BCE, Lepidus—as governor of Gallia Narbonensis and Hispania Citerior—aided Antony and thus became a member of the Second Triumvirate (43–36 BCE) with Antony and Octavian. Lepidus was consul in Rome in 42 BCE while Antony and Octavian defeated Cassius and Brutus at Philippi. As governor of Africa from 40 to 36 BCE, Lepidus aided Octavian in his war against Sextus Pompeius, the son of Pompey the Great. After the ouster of Sextus Pompeius from Sicily, Lepidus was subsequently deprived of his powers by Octavian in 36 BCE and died in 12 BCE.
Marcus Antonius (aka Antony) (cos. 44, 34 BCE) – Antony was the grandson of the famous orator Marcus Antonius (cos. 99 BCE). His maternal grandfather was Lucius Julius Caesar (cos. 90 BCE), apparently a relative of Gaius Julius Caesar. Both of Antony’s grandfathers were slain by Marius and Cinna in 87 BCE. Antony’s father was the notorious Marcus Antonius [Creticus], who was given an extraordinary command against the Mediterranean pirates as praetor in 74 BCE. His father failed in his command and was slain in Krete in 71 BCE. Antony’s mother Julia subsequently married Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura (cos. 71 BCE). Antony’s step-father was a leading member of the Cataline conspiracy and was put to death by the consul Cicero on December 5, 63 BCE. Antony was a member of the Second Triumvirate (43–36 BCE) with Octavian & Lepidus and demanded the murder of Cicero in revenge for the death of his step-father. Along with a sickly Octavian, Antony was victorious over Cassius and Brutus at Philippi in 42 BCE. Antony failed in his 36 BCE invasion of Parthia. Antony and Kleopatra VII were defeated by Octavian at Actium in 31 BCE and both committed suicide in Egypt in 30 BCE.
Gaius Cassius Longinus – As quaestor to Crassus, Cassius escaped the disaster at Carrhae in 53 BCE and repelled a Parthian invasion of Syria in 51 BCE. Cassius sided with Pompey in the civil war, but was pardoned by Julius Caesar. He was one of the assassins of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE. Cassius and Brutus were defeated by Antony at Philippi and both committed suicide in 42 BCE.
Marcus Junius Brutus – Brutus sided with Pompey in the civil war, but was pardoned by Julius Caesar. He was one of the assassins of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE. Brutus and Cassius were defeated by Antony at Philippi and both committed suicide in 42 BCE.
Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Octavian, the later Caesar Augustus) (cos. 43, 33, 31, 30, 29, 28. 27, 26, 25, 24, 23 BCE etc.) – Octavian was the grand nephew and heir of Julius Caesar and a member of the Second Triumvirate (43–36 BCE) with Antony and Lepidus. Octavian’s general Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa vanquished Antony and Kleopatra VII at Actium in 31 BCE. Octavian assumed the title of Princeps Senatus (Senate Leader) in 28 BCE after which he was in effect emperor of Rome until his death in 14 CE.
FRESH FROM THE PAINTING TABLE
Okay, I had originally intended several years ago to use this blog for two purposes: to post articles on ancient history relevant to wargaming and to post images of my wargaming miniatures. Unfortunately due to illness, I haven’t done much of the first and none at all of the latter. So, a couple of months ago, I looked around for a painting service here in Ontario and found the web site of Four Realms of Chaos in Markham. Ontario.
The following is the first commission that Four Realms of Chaos painted for me. It consists of 48 legionaries (Latin: legionarii) divided into three units. The miniatures are from the Wargames Foundry. The first photo shows the miniatures prior to being coated with The Army Painter’s Quickshade, a pigmented varnish.
As you can see, Four Realms of Chaos did a fabulous job. You pay according to the quality of painting that you want. I asked for a good wargaming paint job. Their price was pretty reasonable and I got a very good standard of painting for wargaming miniatures. I am so happy that I have already sent them off a second commission consisting of more legionaries, Numidian light cavalry, and some Gallic allied infantry!
Anyway, I added shields using the wonderful shield transfers from Little Big Men Studios. I also did the wargaming bases. First up are the black shields:
Next are the green shields:
And last are the white shields:
Unfortunately, I am having some trouble with my digital camera. It is flashing an error message that I don’t recognize! %@#$%#
BACKGROUND ON THE ROMAN REPUBLIC IN THE FIRST CENTURY BCE
Gaius Marius is credited with reforming the Roman army during the last decade of the Second Century BCE and the first decade of the First Century BCE. In the decades that followed, Roman armies were often more loyal to their commanders than to the Republic as it was their commanders who paid them and frequently rewarded them with farms in Italy. According to Pliny the Elder, Crassus is said to have commented that no one could consider himself rich if he could not support a legion on his own annual income! In 88 BCE, Sulla was the first Roman general to lead an army against and into the city of Rome. More than a half century of civil wars followed on and off with Octavian (Augustus) emerging as the ultimate victor. This era is a fascinating and remarkably rich source for historical study as well as for gaming.
The above models of legionaries of the First Century BCE are suitable for the armies of many Roman commanders during these turbulent, final years of the Roman Republic including the following. Incidentally, I have given a bit more information about the first two generations due to my own personal interest.
N.B. The abbreviation ‘cos.’ is the ancient Latin abbreviation for consul.
Gaius Marius (cos. 107, 104, 103, 102, 101, 100, 86 BCE) – Marius conquered Jugurtha, the king of Numidia, in 105 BCE putting an end to a long drawn out war (112–105). Marius was victorious against the Teutones at Aquae Sextiae in 102 BCE and was victorious along with Quintus Lutatius Catulus (cos. 102 BCE) against the Cimbri at Vercellae in 101 BCE. The Teutones and Cimbri were Germanic tribes who threatened Italy and Rome’s Gallic provinces. After the command in the First Mithridatic War (88–86 BCE) was stripped from Sulla and assigned to Marius in 88 BCE, Marius was forced to flee Rome for his life by Sulla’s army. He just barely managed to escape to north Africa. Following the departure of Sulla and his army for the East, Marius and the consul Cinna occupied Rome and slaughtered their opponents in 87 BCE. Marius’ former colleague Quintus Lutatius Catulus was forced to commit suicide. Marius died just 17 days after beginning his seventh consulship in 86 BCE at the age of seventy.
Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (cos. 88, 80 BCE) – Sulla served under Marius against Jugurtha (whom Sulla captured) and under Catulus against the Germans. Sulla rose to prominence as a commander during the Social War (91–88 BCE) in which Rome’s Italian allies (Latin: socii) rose in revolt seeking Roman citizenship. In 88 BCE Sulla was stripped of the command against Mithridates the Great of Pontos and was forced to withdraw from Rome to escape from riotous mobs. However, Sulla returned with his army, captured Rome, and forced Marius to flee. Sulla then slaughtered his opponents and awarded himself the command in the First Mithridatic War (88–86 BCE). Sulla sacked Athens and was victorious against the Pontic armies at Khaironeia and Orkhomenos in 86 BCE. He subsequently imposed the Peace of Dardanos upon Mithridates the Great in 86 BCE. Upon returning to Italy, Sulla vanquished the Marians in Italy in 83–82 BCE. Sulla then proscribed his enemies throughout Italy slaughtering them on what appears to have been an unprecedented scale. Sulla became Dictator in 81 BCE. He laid down the dictatorship in 79 BCE and died the following year (78 BCE).
Lucius Cornelus Cinna (cos. 87, 86, 85, 84 BCE) – Following the departure of Sulla for the East, the consul Cinna supported granting full Roman citizenship to all people in Italy whereas his co-consul Gnaeus Octavius (cos. 87 BCE) opposed this policy. After violent street fighting, Cinna was driven out of Rome by Octavius and his pro-Sulla supporters. Octavius then ousted Cinna from the consulship and supported the illegal election of Lucius Cornelius Merula (cos. suff. 87 BCE) to take his place. Along with Marius, Cinna raised an army and advanced against Rome in 87 BCE. Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo (cos. 89 BCE), the father of Pompey the Great, ostensibly came to the aid of Octavius, but died apparently after being struck by lightning! Marius and Cinna then took Rome and Octavius was slain. Merula relinquished the consulhip to Cinna and committed suicide. Cinna later opposed the killings being fomented by Marius. In 85 BCE, the young Gaius Julius Caesar married Cinna’s daughter Cornelia. Cinna was killed by mutineers in Ancona in 84 BCE.
Lucius Licinius Lucullus (cos. 74 BCE) – Lucullus served with distinction under Sulla during the Social War (91–88 BCE), during Sulla’s march on Rome in 88 BCE, and during the First Mithridatic War (88–86 BCE). In Sulla’s will, Lucullus was appointed guardian of Sulla’s young son Faustus Cornelius Sulla. Given command in the Third Mithridatic War (74–66 BCE), Lucullus lifted the siege of Kyzikos by Mithridates the Great in 73 BCE and expelled Mithridates from Pontos in 71 BCE. Mithridates fled to his son-in-law Tigranes the Great, the king of Armenia. With a relatively small army, Lucullus then marched against Tigranes, who famously quipped that if they came as ambassadors they were too many, but if they came as soldiers they were too few! Lucullus, nevertheless, routed Tigranes at Tigranokerta and Artaxata in 69/68 BCE. However, Lucullus was prevented from ultimately conquering Mithridates and Tigranes by his mutinous army and by the Roman publicani (tax farmers), whose rape of the cities of Asia Lucullus had moderated. Lucullus was forced to surrender his command to Pompey the Great in 66 BCE. Back in Rome, Lucullus was an unsuccessful politician and was famous for his luxurious life style. He lapsed into insanity and died in roughly 57/56 BCE.
Quintus Sertorius – A supporter of Cinna against the pro-Sulla forces. Sertorius persuaded Cinna to join him in opposing the killings in Rome fomented by Marius. Upon the return of Sulla from the East in 83 BCE, Sertorius withdrew from Italy and eventually established himself in Spain. For roughly a decade, Sertorius was successful in fighting numerous Roman generals sent against him including Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius (cos. 80 BCE) and Pompey the Great. Sertorius was assassinated by Marcus Perperna in 73/72 BCE.
Marcus Licinius Crassus (cos. 70, 55 BCE) – Crassus was the son of Publius Licinius Crassus (cos. 97 BCE), who committed suicide when Marius and Cinna captured Rome in 87 BCE. Crassus fled first to Spain and then to Africa and subsequently joined Sulla when he returned to Italy in 83 BCE. Crassus was responsible for Sulla’s victory against the Marians at Rome’s Colline Gate in 83/82 BCE. Crassus became fabulously wealthy by profiteering from the proscriptions of Sulla. Crassus vanquished the gladiator Spartacus and his slave army in 71 BCE in Lucania. He was consul in 70 BCE with Pompey as his colleague. Crassus was a member of the First Triumvirate (60–53 BCE) with Pompey and Caesar. Crassus was once again consul with Pompey in 55 BCE and received the province of Syria for 5 years. Having built up his army in Syria during 54 BCE, Crassus crossed the Euphrates River in an invasion of the Parthian Empire. However, Crassus was defeated and killed by the Parthians at Carrhae in 53 BCE. His sons Marcus and Publius both served with distinction under Julius Caesar during the Gallic Wars. Publius died at Carrhae.
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great) (cos. 70, 55, 52 BCE) – Pompey was given the title Magnus (“Great”) as a young man by Sulla for his victories against the Marians in Italy, Sicily, and Africa. Despite his youth and lack of the prerequisite high elected office, Pompey was awarded a triumph for these victories in 81/80 BCE. Pompey was sent to Spain in 77 BCE to fight against Sertorius alongside Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius (cos. 80 BCE). However, the two generals and two armies were unable to put an end to the war until after the assassination of Sertorius in 73/72 BCE. Pompey was consul in 70 BCE with Crassus as his colleague. Pompey was given an extraordinary command against the pirates and swept them from the Mediterranean in 67 BCE. Pompey ousted Mithridates the Great from Pontos in 66 BCE. Pompey accepted the surrender of Tigranes the Great, but left him as king of Armenia, which was henceforth a Roman client kingdom. Pompey campaigned in the Caucasus in 65 BCE against the Iberi and Albani. He ousted the Seleukid dynasty and annexed Syria in 64 BCE. Pompey besieged and captured Jerusalem in 63 BCE. Pompey’s son-in-law Faustus Cornelius Sulla distinguished himself by being the first to mount the Temple’s battlements. Pompey established Judaea as a Roman client state. Pompey was a member of the First Triumvirate (60–53 BCE) with Crassus and Caesar. Pompey obtained his second consulship again with Crassus as his colleague in 55 BCE. The elections for 52 BCE were invalidated due to widespread gang warfare and bribery. As a result, Pompey was declared sole consul in 52 BCE, but in the middle of the year he appointed his father-in-law Metellus Scipio as his colleague. Civil war broke out between Pompey and Caesar in 49 BCE. Pompey unexpectedly evacuated Italy and mobilized an army in the Balkans. Pompey was defeated by Caesar at Pharsalos and was murdered in Egypt in 48 BCE.
Marcus Tullius Cicero (cos. 63 BCE) – A noted orator, litigator, and author. During his consulship, Cicero thwarted the widespread conspiracy of Lucius Sergius Catilina (Catiline), who was slain in battle in January 62 BCE. Cicero sided with Pompey in the civil war, but was pardoned by Julius Caesar. Cicero was proscribed by Antony and murdered in 43 BCE.
Gaius Julius Caesar (cos. 59, 48, 46, 45, 44 BCE) – Caesar’s paternal aunt Julia was the wife of Marius and the mother of his son. Caesar’s older cousin Gaius Marius the Younger (cos. 82 BCE) died fighting against Sulla during his consulship. Caesar was married to Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna. As a result of these family connections, Caesar went into hiding in the countryside in ca. 82–81 BCE to avoid the proscriptions of Sulla, who eventually pardoned Caesar due to his youth and connections. Caesar was a member of the First Triumvirate (60–53 BCE) with Pompey and Crassus. He was the governor of Cisalpine Gaul, Transalpine Gaul, and Illyricum from 58 to 50 BCE. Caesar used his command of these provinces to expand into the territory of the Celtae, Aquitani, and Belgae. Caesar was the first Roman general to bridge the Rhine in 55 and 53 BCE. Caesar also led the first Roman invasions of Britain in 55 and 54 BCE. He was victorious in 52 BCE at Alesia against the Gallic leader Vercingetorix and thereby effectively finalized his conquest of the Celtae, Aquitani, and Belgae. In January 49 BCE, Caesar crossed the Rubicon (the border between his province and Italy) thus beginning a civil war against Pompey. Caesar defeated the Pompeian armies in Spain at Ilerda in 49 BCE. Caesar vanquished Pompey himself at Pharsalos in 48 BCE. Caesar established Kleopatra VII as the Ptolemaic queen of Egypt and supposedly fathered a son with her nicknamed Caesarion. Caesar defeated the Pontic king Pharnakes II of Pontos (the son of Mithridates the Great) at Zela in 47 BCE and sent a report to the Senate simply stating “Veni, vidi, vici (I came, I saw, I conquered)”. Caesar defeated the Pompeians in Africa at Thapsus in 46 BCE and in Spain at Munda in 45 BCE. Caesar was assassinated on the Ides of March in 44 BCE.
Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (cos. 46, 42 BCE) – Lepidus was the son of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (cos. 78 BCE), who had attempted to overthrow Sulla’s constitutional reforms and had marched on Rome in 77 BCE. However, his father had been defeated by Quintus Lutatius Catulus (cos. 78), the son of the consul of 102 BCE. His father had died shortly afterwards in Sardinia and his vanquished supporters—including Marcus Perperna—had then joined the renegade Quintus Sertorius in Spain. Later these anti-Sullan connections of his father would have no doubt commended the younger Lepidus to Julius Caesar. Nearly three decades later, Caesar occupied Rome in 49 BCE and appointed Lepidus as praetor. While Caesar marched against Pompey in the Balkans, Lepidus was governor of Hispania Citerior (Nearer/Hither Spain) from 48 to 47 BCE. Lepidus was Caesar’s colleague as consul in 46 BCE. During Caesar’s dictatorship (46–44 BCE), Lepidus was Caesar’s magister equitum (Master of the Horse, i.e. second in command). After Caesar’s assassination in 44 BCE, Lepidus—as governor of Gallia Narbonensis and Hispania Citerior—aided Antony and thus became a member of the Second Triumvirate (43–36 BCE) with Antony and Octavian. Lepidus was consul in Rome in 42 BCE while Antony and Octavian defeated Cassius and Brutus at Philippi. As governor of Africa from 40 to 36 BCE, Lepidus aided Octavian in his war against Sextus Pompeius, the son of Pompey the Great. After the ouster of Sextus Pompeius from Sicily, Lepidus was subsequently deprived of his powers by Octavian in 36 BCE and died in 12 BCE.
Marcus Antonius (aka Antony) (cos. 44, 34 BCE) – Antony was the grandson of the famous orator Marcus Antonius (cos. 99 BCE). His maternal grandfather was Lucius Julius Caesar (cos. 90 BCE), apparently a relative of Gaius Julius Caesar. Both of Antony’s grandfathers were slain by Marius and Cinna in 87 BCE. Antony’s father was the notorious Marcus Antonius [Creticus], who was given an extraordinary command against the Mediterranean pirates as praetor in 74 BCE. His father failed in his command and was slain in Krete in 71 BCE. Antony’s mother Julia subsequently married Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura (cos. 71 BCE). Antony’s step-father was a leading member of the Cataline conspiracy and was put to death by the consul Cicero on December 5, 63 BCE. Antony was a member of the Second Triumvirate (43–36 BCE) with Octavian & Lepidus and demanded the murder of Cicero in revenge for the death of his step-father. Along with a sickly Octavian, Antony was victorious over Cassius and Brutus at Philippi in 42 BCE. Antony failed in his 36 BCE invasion of Parthia. Antony and Kleopatra VII were defeated by Octavian at Actium in 31 BCE and both committed suicide in Egypt in 30 BCE.
Gaius Cassius Longinus – As quaestor to Crassus, Cassius escaped the disaster at Carrhae in 53 BCE and repelled a Parthian invasion of Syria in 51 BCE. Cassius sided with Pompey in the civil war, but was pardoned by Julius Caesar. He was one of the assassins of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE. Cassius and Brutus were defeated by Antony at Philippi and both committed suicide in 42 BCE.
Marcus Junius Brutus – Brutus sided with Pompey in the civil war, but was pardoned by Julius Caesar. He was one of the assassins of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE. Brutus and Cassius were defeated by Antony at Philippi and both committed suicide in 42 BCE.
Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Octavian, the later Caesar Augustus) (cos. 43, 33, 31, 30, 29, 28. 27, 26, 25, 24, 23 BCE etc.) – Octavian was the grand nephew and heir of Julius Caesar and a member of the Second Triumvirate (43–36 BCE) with Antony and Lepidus. Octavian’s general Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa vanquished Antony and Kleopatra VII at Actium in 31 BCE. Octavian assumed the title of Princeps Senatus (Senate Leader) in 28 BCE after which he was in effect emperor of Rome until his death in 14 CE.
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